14 Alternative power sources

14.1 Hydrogen fuel cell

Updated: 20th June 2022

Synonyms

hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles, FCEV

Definition

Hydrogen Fuel Cells are systems that use hydrogen as fuel to generate electrical energy in a Fuel Cell and drive the vehicle with it. In a technical manner, they show similarities with electric vehicles. The advantages of Fuel Cell Electrical Vehicles (FCEV) are emission-free (water only), fast refuelling, noiseless driving, more economical fuel consumption and efficiency, easy maintenance. Regardless of these benefits, FCEV has some disadvantages, such as limited range, lack of hydrogen refuelling stations, safety problems, low profitability for car manufacturers, high prices and lower awareness and acceptance (Tanç et al., 2019; Borgstedt et al., 2017; Iribarren et al., 2016). Moreover, FCEVs have higher energy density than electric batteries which enables them to drive further with heavier loads. At the same time, it raises constraints on weight and size of the energy storage in the vehicles. Consequently, FCEVs are more suitable for freight transport, commercial vehicles, buses, trains, ships and aircrafts, where the performance requirements are higher. Prototypes of all the examples mentioned already exist (Eichlseder et al, 2018). In terms of private cars, the FCEVs are likely to provide advantage for long-distance travelling (Roadmap Europe, 2019).

Key stakeholders

  • Affected: Conventional Cars’ Drivers, Citizen
  • Responsible: National Governments, Car Manufacturers, International lobbyists, Private Companies

Current state of art in research

The goal of alternative propulsion systems is to minimize or eliminate completely the climate-damaging CO2 emissions, consequently the European Community Research Program proposes electromobility as a priority research area. However, methods of hydrogen production by biological and photochemical processes are also being intensively researched, since 95% of the hydrogen currently produced industrially comes from fossil hydrocarbons and only 5% from water by electrolysis. Where the only emission-free production process of hydrogen is the electrochemical water splitting in electrolysis, when the required electricity is generated from wind-, water or solar energy. This process results in high degrees of purity and usually achieves efficiencies of up to 85% (Eichlseder et al., 2018). Moreover, the electric vehicle policy aims at technology optimization, market development, durability and capacity of the batteries and charging stations (Alvarez-Meaza et al., 2020). There is a continuous “hydrogen hype” while reality shows, that hydrogen is mostly used for different industry purposes. It is proposed that fuel cells could have best prospects in vehicles with high capacities such as trucks and buses, where they have a better performance in comparison to BEVs (battery electric vehicle). In the future, a stable and long-term policy framework as well as standardization across regions and sectors will be needed to achieve full benefits of hydrogen and fuel cells in the transport sector (Ajanovic, 2021).

Current state of art in practice

Hydrogen in transport is only at the beginning of its development (in 2013 the first light FCEVs were introduced for leasing only). Compared to other alternative propulsion systems such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs), which were introduced to the vehicle market earlier, FCEVs show a similar upward trend. At the end of 2017, the total number of FCEVs in Europe reached 799 vehicles, of which 602 were passenger cars and 197 light commercial vehicles, while the total number of BEVs reached 447,150 vehicles. At the end of 2018, the number of FCEVs in Europe rose to about 1,110 (Apostolou and Xydis, 2019). Worldwide, about 12,900 fuel cell vehicles were in operation at the end of 2018, 11,200 of them passenger cars. 46 % of the vehicles are on the road in the USA, 43 percent in Asia and 11 percent in the EU (1,110 cars). In terms of commercial vehicles, China dominates with over 400 buses, followed by the USA with 55 and the EU with around 80 (Eichlseder et al., 2018). In terms of the number of hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) worldwide, just about 375 stations are in operation in 2018, compared to 320 in 2017. Most of these are publicly available, the rest are demonstration/research projects and are used to supply hydrogen to private fleets. At the end of 2018, Europe was the region with the most HRS in operation with more than 170 HRS, while Asia (mainly Japan) was second with about 130 HRS and America (mainly the US) third with more than 70 stations installed. Figure below shows the number of HRS by country at the end of 2018 (Apostolou and Xydis, 2019):

Number of hydrogen refuelling stations worldwide (Apostolou and Xydis, 2019)

Figure 14.1: Number of hydrogen refuelling stations worldwide (Apostolou and Xydis, 2019)

The European Strategic Energy Technology Plan proposes hydrogen and fuel-cell technologies as crucial for obtaining green-house gases reduction goals by 2050 (Roadmap Europe H., 2019; Alvarez-Meaza et al., 2020). Hydrogen trucks are produced by Hyundai and Hyzon and have already been implemented in Switzerland and the Netherlands in 2021. The Xcient is the world’s first mass-produced fuel cell electric truck with a range of 400 km and a charging of about 15 minutes. The American brand Hyzon Motors plans 100,000 trucks by 2030 for Europe.

Relevant initiatives in Austria

Impacts with respect to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Impact level Indicator Impact direction Goal description and number Source
Individual Improved air quality + Health & Wellbeing (3) Colella, Jacobson & Golden, 2005
Individual High prices of hydrogen cars and hydrogen fuel - Equality (5,10) Kanna & Paturu, 2020
Individual Cost for individuals (high acquisition costs but lower operating costs) ~ Sustainable economic development (8,11) Apostolou & Xydis, 2019
Systemic Emissions reduced, improved air quality + Health & Wellbeing (3) Colella, Jacobson & Golden, 2005
Systemic Distribution and allocation of goods worsens - Equality (5,10) Kanna & Paturu, 2020
Systemic Reduced emissions, replacement of fossil fuels, energy transition + Environmental sustainability (7,12-13,15) Colella, Jacobson & Golden, 2005
Systemic Not yet profitable for manufacturers - Sustainable economic development (8,11) Roadmap Europe, 2019
Systemic Number of hydrogen refuelling stations increases + Innovation & Infrastructure (9) Apostolou & Xydis, 2019
Systemic Sharing technologies internationally + Partnership & collaborations (17) International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy, n.d.

Technology and societal readiness level

TRL SRL
7-8 6-8

Open questions

  1. How will the hydrogen truck market evolve in the future?
  2. How to store large amounts of energy at low weight and in a restricted space within the vehicle? (Roadmap Europe, 2019)

References

  • Alvarez-Meaza, I., Zarrabeitia-Bilbao, E., Rio-Belver, R. M., & Garechana-Anacabe, G. (2020). Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicles: Plotting a Scientific and Technological Knowledge Map. Sustainability, 12(6), 2334.
  • Ajanovic, A., Haas, R. (2021). Prospects and Impediments for hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles in the transport sector. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 46 (16), 10049-10058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.03.122
  • Apostolou, D., & Xydis, G. (2019). A literature review on hydrogen refuelling stations and infrastructure. Current status and future prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 113(May), 109292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109292
  • Borgstedt, P., Neyer, B., & Schewe, G. (2017). Paving the road to electric vehicles–A patent analysis of the automotive supply industry. Journal of cleaner production, 167, 75-87.
  • Colella, W. G., Jacobson, M. Z., & Golden, D. M. (2005). Switching to a U.S. hydrogen fuel cell vehicle fleet: The resultant change in emissions, energy use, and greenhouse gases. Journal of Power Sources, 150, 150–181. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.05.092
  • Doppelbauer, M. (2020). Grundlagen der Elektromobilität. In Grundlagen der Elektromobilität. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-29730-5
  • Eichlseder, H., Klell, M., & Trattner, A. (2018). Wasserstoff in der Fahrzeugtechnik. In Wasserstoff in der Fahrzeugtechnik. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8348-9674-2
  • International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy. (n.d.). No Title. https://www.iphe.net/
  • Iribarren, D., Martín-Gamboa, M., Manzano, J., & Dufour, J. (2016). Assessing the social acceptance of hydrogen for transportation in Spain: an unintentional focus on target population for a potential hydrogen economy. International journal of hydrogen energy, 41(10), 5203-5208.
  • Kanna, I. V., & Paturu, P. (2020). A study of hydrogen as an alternative fuel. International Journal of Ambient Energy, 41(12), 1433–1436. https://doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2018.1484803
  • Lehmann, J., & Luschtinetz, T. (2014). Wasserstoff und Brennstoffzellen.
  • Roadmap Europe (2019). A sustainable pathway for the European energy transition. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
  • Pötscher, F., Winter, R., Lichtblau, G., Schreiber, H., & Kutschera, U. (2014). Ökobilanz alternativer Antriebe – Elektrofahrzeuge im Vergleich.
  • Schabbach, T., & Wesselak, V. (2020). Energie - Den Erneuerbaren gehört die Zukunft.
  • Tanç, B., Arat, H. T., Baltacıoğlu, E., & Kadir, A. (2019). Overview of the next quarter century vision of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles. In International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 44, Issue 20, (pp. 10120–10128).
  • Töpler, J., & Lehmann, J. (2017). Wasserstoff und Brennstoffzelle - Technologien und Marktkonzepte. In Springer Vieweg.

14.2 Battery electric

Updated: 20th June 2022

Synonyms

Battery electric vehicle (BEV)

Definition

Transport contributes up to 30% of climate-relevant greenhouse gas emissions in Austria, with CO2 playing the largest role here (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, 2019). While the average engine power of vehicles sold annually is increasing (Kreuzer, 2020), the total emissions from the transport sector are also rising (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, 2019). Without a change in mobility behaviour, only a switch to locally emission-free drive technologies, such as BEVs, can help this situation. BEVs are emission-free in operation (apart from tyre wear and minimal brake dust) and have a battery storage/accumulator installed that is charged at an external charging station. The power conversion takes place in an electric motor. The benefits and drawbacks of BEVs are presented in the table below.

Advantages Disadvantages
Lower noise: Electric motors operate far more quietly than combustion engines. However, in car traffic, most noise is not generated by the engine, but by the interaction of tyres and road surface or - at high speeds - by aerodynamic noises. In these cases, there is no difference between an electric car and a conventional vehicle. It is only above about 25 kilometres per hour that rolling noises are decisive when driving a car. Below this speed, the engine noise is the determining noise source. Therefore, electric cars are quieter in low-speed areas such as residential areas or when starting at intersections and traffic lights. Range currently varies from approx. 300 to 800 km, with an increasing trend over the last years. Longest ranges nowadays (2022) reach from 400 to 850 km (Lucid Air). The range depends on many factors, such as differences in driving style, weather conditions (it only reaches its full capacity in a temperature range between 20 and 40 degrees Celsius), air conditioning usage. Nevertheless, 94% of all car journeys by the Austrian population are shorter than 50 km.
Locally emission-free: BEVs emit no air pollutants when in use. The reduction of greenhouse gases is strongly dependent on the energy sources with which the electricity was produced beforehand and the resulting emissions. The Austrian electricity mix already has a high proportion of renewable energy. The additional electricity demand caused by electromobility is covered many times over by the expansion plans until 2020 for electricity generation from renewable energy sources. This represents an excellent situation for electromobility in Austria. Electricity requirement: With an increasing number of electric vehicles on Austrian roads, there may be varying loads on the low-voltage grid, which can lead to voltage fluctuations and interruptions. If, consequently, controlled charging is necessary in the medium to long-term, this should be included in the planning and construction of charging points. However, care must be taken to ensure that the control system corresponds to customer interests.
Acquisition costs: the cheapest electric cars cost around 20.490 euros, with a rising trend. System of fast charging is cost-intensive as well as challenging in terms of safety and is particularly demanding for the electricity grid due to the high power required (> 20 kW per connection). Such charging stations should primarily be installed where it is compatible with the grid and where they are economical. Therefore, a cost-benefit assessment is advisable before installing fast charging stations.
Charging costs: If the electric car is charged on household electricity, the costs are just under 36 cents/kWh, at public charging stations they vary between 30-60 cents (with a rising trend over the last years). For 100 km in an e-car, electricity costs about 4.50 for charging. The corresponding costs for petrol and diesel in comparison: with a consumption of 6 litres of petrol and 5 litres of diesel respectively, currently 8.40 euros and 6.70 euros (Michael, 2020), although those numbers rose significantly at the beginning of 2022 due to the Russian-Ukrainian war (Hoffmann, 2022) Charging time depends on battery capacity and charging power. At public fast charging stations, the duration is about half an hour to an hour. At a household socket 8-14 hours.
Charging stations: The number of charging stations and charging points is steadily increasing in Austria and currently stands at 9700 (E-control, 2022) publicly accessible charging points. By comparison, there are just under 2800 petrol stations in Austria (Sitte, 2019). -

Key stakeholders

  • Affected: Conventional Cars’ Drivers, Car Manufacturers, Insurers
  • Responsible: National Governments, City Government, Private Companies, International Lobbyists

Current state of art in research

Research on this topic focuses mainly on technology performance, component sizing, charging stations and life cycle assessment (LCA). LCA is a tool to assess the environmental footprint of a product, process or activity throughout its life cycle (Roy et al., 2009). The main factors influencing the LCA of BEVs are the production of the vehicle and the provision of electricity for its operation. No direct emissions are produced during operation, but the source of electricity supply influences the amount of indirect emissions. Old batteries can be reused as stationary electricity storage units. Recycling the batteries makes it possible to use them again as a source of raw materials. The following raw materials are necessary in the production of battery electric drives: Lithium for the lithium-ion battery, cobalt also for the battery, although the demand is decreasing, and copper as a conductor material. Rare earths, particularly neodymium and dysprosium are needed for permanent magnets, but might be replaced by another motor technology in the future (Doppelbauer, 2020).

The table below compares the CO2 emissions (in tonnes) during the production of cars with an internal combustion engine (ICE) and battery-powered electric vehicles (BEV), considering size of the car. The production process of BEVs, involves, compared to ICEs, 3 to 9 tonnes bigger CO2 emission (Doppelbauer, 2020).

ICE BEV
Small Medium Large Small (30 kWh) Medium (60 kWh) Large (90 kWh)
Body of the car 2.5 3.8 5.0 2.5 3.8 5.0
Additional components 0.5 0.65 0.8 0.5 0.65 0.8
HV System - - - 0.3 0.55 0.7
Propulsion 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.25 0.3
Production 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Battery - - - 3 6 9
Total 4.9 6.6 8.1 8 12.8 17.3

This life cycle assessment considers current data on the production of battery systems for electric vehicles. Although the production of batteries requires a significant amount of energy and is therefore associated with high emissions, electric vehicles do not have components such as gearboxes and exhaust gas after-treatment and their production-related emissions.

The decisive factor for the greenhouse gas balance of vehicles is, above all, the energy used to operate the vehicle. While the use of fossil energy in petrol and diesel vehicles results in high greenhouse gas emissions, electric vehicles have no direct greenhouse gas emissions in their balance sheet. Taking into account direct and indirect emissions, the use of an electric car powered by electricity from renewable sources can save 80% of GHG emissions compared to a fossil fuel-powered car. In addition, the use of renewable electricity also significantly reduces nitrogen oxide emissions. Particulate matter emissions, on the other hand, increase slightly, depending on the source of electricity.

The advantages of electric drives are also evident in the cumulative energy consumption, depending on the quality of the electricity. The lower specific consumption compared to fossil-fuelled vehicles should be emphasised. This is due to the high efficiency of the electric motor (Fritz et al., 2018). The negative environmental and social impacts of extracting the rare raw materials needed to produce the battery are already being reduced. The German government supports research into the economic use and recovery of raw materials and the reuse of batteries (Second Life). Batteries that require significantly less cobalt are now also available. Industry is also becoming increasingly involved in initiatives for the sustainable supply of the raw material (responsible mining) (Kurzempa, 2018).

In terms of the efficiency of this technology, the well-to-wheel efficiency in Austria calculates to 69%. This is a significant efficiency gain as compared to a fuel cell car with an average well-to-wheel efficiency of about 27% and a petrol-powered car at about 20% (Bundesministerium für Umwelt Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit, n.d.). The losses in the electricity grid in Austria are very low and can be estimated in the range of 5%, which results in a well-to-tank efficiency of 95% based on 100% green electricity. In the course of the charging process, charging losses of 10% occur due to resistances in the charging cable and the battery. However, an AC/DC voltage converter (rectifier) is connected upstream of the traction battery, which causes a further 5% energy loss. In order to get the stored energy onto the road, it now flows through a DC/AC voltage converter (inverter) with 5% energy loss and can finally be transferred to the wheel by an electric motor with 90% efficiency. The tank-to-wheel efficiency is therefore 73%. Gu et al., (2021) research the use of secondary use of electric vehicle battery for a closed loop supply chain perspective that proposes a model consisting of a battery (re)manufacturer, a secondary user and a government, in which the government provides and incentivises the secondary use of electric batteries. The use of different forms and ways of secondary use is currently researched under various researchers (Cui & Ramyar et al., 2022).

Current state of art in practice

The number of e-cars registered worldwide has reached a new record level. At the same time, however, the growth in new registrations weakened. In 2019, around 7.9 million e-cars were registered worldwide. However, while the number of new registrations in 2018 still had a plus of 74% compared to 2017 (1.3 million to 2.2 million), in 2019 new registrations remained almost at the same level as in 2018 with a plus of 4% (2.3 million in 2019) (Prack, 2020).

According to the Centre for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg (ZSW), this development is primarily due to a reduction in e-car subsidies in China and the USA. Nevertheless, the previous year’s level of new registrations was almost reached in these countries: 1,204,000 new registrations were registered in China (52,000 less), and 329,500 in the USA (31,800 less). With around 230,000 registered vehicles, Germany is in seventh place in terms of the total number of e-cars after China, the USA, Norway, Japan, France and the UK (Prack, 2020).

But electric power is not just an alternative for personal modes of transport. Increasingly more vehicles in the commercial and public transport sectors are being electrically powered. The larger and heavier a vehicle is, the more difficult it is to electrify it due to the enormous mass of the larger batteries. However, battery technology is constantly developing, and the ranges are increasing. Even heavy semi-trailer trucks could be electrified in the near future. However, they would need batteries and overhead lines on motorways for fast charging along their routes. This is now being tested in Germany. Three routes in Hesse, Schleswig-Holstein and Baden-Württemberg are currently being equipped with overhead lines (see more in section on Electric Road Systems). In many cities, such as Cologne, Berlin and Hamburg, electric buses are already part of regular service. Their electricity needs are met by fast, occasional charging at bus stops and by charging at night in depots. Many German cities plan to use all-electric buses soon (Kurzempa, 2018). Recently, the higher risk of electromobility to cause long lasting fires resulted in various electric buses being removed in cities of Germany after fires in Munich and Stuttgard (Heller, 2021; Meza, 2021).

Relevant initiatives in Austria

Impacts with respect to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Impact level Indicator Impact direction Goal description and number Source
Individual Lower noise + Health & Wellbeing (3) Bundesministerium fuer Umwelt, 2019
Individual Locally emission-free + Environmental sustainability (7,12,13,15) Bundesministerium fuer Umwelt, 2019
Individual Reduced travel cost + Sustainable economic development (8,11) Michael, 2020
Systemic Emission free but high emissions in production ~ Environmental sustainability (7,12,13,15) Fritz et al., 2018
Systemic Increasing number of charging stations + Innovation & Infrastructure (9) Sitte, 2019; Kurzempa, 2018
Systemic Electric Vehicles Initiative accelerating the introduction and adoption of electric vehicles worldwide + Partnership & collaborations (17) IEA, 2020

Technology and societal readiness level

TRL SRL
8-9 7-9

Open questions

  1. How can supply bottlenecks along the value creation chain be addressed?
  2. What is the potential shift in dependency from oil-producing to lithium producing countries? What is the expected timeframe?
  3. How can secondary use of vehicle batteries be incentivised and fostered in the future?
  4. How can local governments increase consumer awareness about BEVs?

References

14.3 Plugin hybrid vehicles

Updated: 20th June 2022

Synonyms

Hybrid, HEV, PHEV

Definition

Plug-in hybrid vehicles effectively combine the electric drive with either a conventional combustion engine or other engines that use alternative fuels. This has the advantage that the vehicles can travel long distances, but consumption and emissions are reduced. An energy management system ensures that the optimum amount of energy is drawn from the two energy sources while driving. The ratio of energy consumption is influenced by the driving cycle. The faster the vehicle drives, the more energy is needed (Aswin and Senthilmurugan, 2018).

A hybrid vehicle is superior in terms of the reduced carbon footprint, better mileage than conventional vehicles, financial assistance for purchase, lower annual cost and a regenerative braking system. At the same time, the disadvantages include high purchasing cost, lower fuel efficiency because the extra parts installed take up more space and add weight, and higher maintenance costs due to the dual engine. Additionally, some concerns have been risen about the risk that the battery may explode in the event of an accident (Aswin and Senthilmurugan, 2018).

However, the safety aspect referred to above can be neglected, as the results in the EuroNCAP crash test show that hybrid vehicles are just as safe as vehicles with conventional drive systems. Toyota’s Hybrid Synergy Drive technology (HSD) also serves as an example, where Toyota’s hybrid system - based on the airbag trigger signal - immediately switches off all electrical systems in the event of an accident and interrupts the battery contact (ADAC, 2019).

Currently, there are several types of hybrid vehicles available on the market:

  • Series hybrid

The series hybrid model consists of an internal combustion engine that drives a generator instead of driving the wheels directly. The wheels of the car get their power from the electric motors. The generator powers both the charging battery and the wheels of the car. Series hybrids generate the maximum energy at the time of acceleration and return the energy at the time of regenerative braking. The electric vehicles are designed in such a way that a motor is connected to each wheel. The combination of motor and wheel has the disadvantage of increasing mass and thus affecting handling, but the advantage of improved traction control.

  • Parallel hybrid

The parallel hybrid vehicle is an integration of an electric motor and an internal combustion engine connected in parallel to the mechanical transmission. The parallel hybrid architecture incorporates both the engine and the electric generator into one unit located between the transmission and the combustion engine. The battery is recharged by regenerative braking. There is a mechanical coupling between the engine and the wheel, recharging the battery cannot occur when the car is moving.

  • Combine hybrid

The combined hybrid vehicle is a fusion of parallel and series hybrid (series-parallel hybrid). There is a double connection (electrical and mechanical) between the drive axle and the engine. The power transmission to the wheels can be either electric or mechanical. At low speeds it behaves like a series hybrid electric vehicle, but at higher speeds series drive trains are less likely to be preferred and the vehicle motor takes over. This model is significantly more expensive than parallel models as they require a mechanically split drive system, an additional generator and high computing power for dual control (Aswin and Senthilmurugan, 2018).

Key stakeholders

  • Affected: Conventional Cars’ Drivers
  • Responsible: National Governments, Car Manufacturers, International lobbyists, Private Companies

Current state of art in research

Current research efforts focus on the reduction of battery size while maintaining the electric driving performance. Therefore, the study by Song et al. (2018) suggest 30.4 kWh as an optimal battery capacity. Another, large research developments are performed with respect to reduction of emissions and continuous testing of environmental efficiency in comparison to conventional cars. In an ADAC test of plug-in hybrids, just two cars scored well in the Ecotest, namely Hyundai Ioniq and Volvo V60. The Hyundai was very energy-efficient, while the Volvo consumed more energy and emitted more carbon dioxide, but its exhaust gases were cleaner. This allowed it to score well in terms of pollutants. However, the test results leave no doubt that large and heavy cars like the BMW X5 and Mercedes GLE, even as plug-in hybrids, consume a lot of energy and therefore cannot be counted as eco-mobiles (Kroher, 2020). Interestingly, recent test conducted on the newest models of PHEV showed that they pollute the environment two to four times more than the manufacturers claim which undermined the public opinion on the environmental advantages offered by the PHEV (Plötz et al., 2020; Bannon, 2020).

Current state of art in practice

The development of the hybrid electric vehicle is evolving into the next generation of the mode of transport, in line with EU’s policy aims of reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, current market penetration is still relatively low, contributing to 1% of total car registrations (as of 2019). In Europe, the leaders in the uptake of plug-in hybrid vehicles are Finland and Sweden followed by the United Kingdom (European Environment Agency, 2020).

In Austria the number of plug-in hybrid vehicles quadrupled in 2020 from January to October compared to the same period last year. By the end of October, about 5,500 new vehicles of this type had been registered. Of the approximately 14,700 applications for e-car subsidies so far this year, 90 percent are purely electric, ten percent are plug-in hybrids and range extenders (Ortner, 2020). The results of a study by the Frauenhofer Institute show that the actual climate balance of plug-in hybrid passenger cars is poor, the real CO2 emissions are twice as high as the values determined in the test cycle, for company cars the real CO2 emissions are even three to four times as high. The VCÖ calls for a rapid change in the subsidies for plug-in hybrid cars in Austria (VCÖ, 2020).

By 2020, there are already 800 public e-charging points in Vienna, with number close to a thousand, Vienna is one of the leading e-mobility cities in Europe (Fischer, 2020). The Austrian energy companies - members of the BEÖ - have driven the expansion of the public charging infrastructure in recent years. With over 5,000 charging points between Vienna and Bregenz, Austria provides one of the densest charging networks in Europe (Sitte, 2020b).By the end of 2021 the number of charging points in Austria rose to 9,700 (E-Control, 2022) an 85.850 licensed EVs (Statistik Austria, 2022) which results in about 1 charging station for 8 electric cars. Consequently, charging stations at the place of residence are indispensable for a quick and convenient charging option. Until end of 2021, all building owners had to agree to the installation of an e-charging station. This unanimity made it complicated, to install e-charging stations in apartment buildings, which is needed for a quick and convenient charging option. With the beginning of 2022 and the released “WEG-Novelle 2022” (Condominium Amendment Act), which is intended to serve the achievement of the internationally specified climate targets, this unanimity was changed in the area of the “consent fiction”, which makes it possible that henceforth not the majority of the apartment owners is required, but the majority of the persons responding to the request vote for these structural measures. Further details on the amendment of the condominium act in Austria can be extracted here.

Relevant initiatives in Austria

Impacts with respect to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Impact level Indicator Impact direction Goal description and number Source
Individual Carbon dioxide emissions reduced + Health & Wellbeing (3) Koellner, 2020
Individual Number of e-charging points increases + Innovation & Infrastructure (9) Sitte, 2020a
Systemic Emissions reduced for small and light vehicles only ~ Environmental sustainability (7,12-13,15) Kroher, 2020; VCOE, 2020
Systemic Exhaust gas treatment strategies are developed + Innovation & Infrastructure (9) Schaefer, 2020

Technology and societal readiness level

TRL SRL
8-9 7-9

Open questions

  1. How the increased use of PHEV will influence the market of second-hand cars?
  2. What is the impact of batteries on the life cycle of the car?

References